1 00:00:02,336 --> 00:00:04,003 Paris' Notre-Dame Cathedral suffers 2 00:00:04,004 --> 00:00:07,548 a catastrophic fire, and restoration efforts reveal 3 00:00:07,549 --> 00:00:10,968 something shocking hidden under its floor. 4 00:00:10,969 --> 00:00:12,720 You can see human bones and hair 5 00:00:12,721 --> 00:00:14,181 and textile remains. 6 00:00:14,431 --> 00:00:16,475 Maybe clothing or a burial shroud? 7 00:00:16,600 --> 00:00:19,560 The top of this person's skull has been sawed right off, 8 00:00:19,561 --> 00:00:22,689 right across the forehead and around the back. 9 00:00:23,273 --> 00:00:25,817 Record-breaking heat results in a severe drought 10 00:00:25,984 --> 00:00:29,571 in the Canadian West, exposing a dark mystery. 11 00:00:29,863 --> 00:00:31,490 There's a human skull, 12 00:00:31,657 --> 00:00:36,077 as well as ribs and arm bones all scattered around the area. 13 00:00:36,078 --> 00:00:38,579 At a depth of roughly a foot and a half, 14 00:00:38,580 --> 00:00:41,249 an almost completely intact skeleton is revealed. 15 00:00:41,250 --> 00:00:44,835 An ecological calamity 13,000 years ago 16 00:00:44,836 --> 00:00:47,089 leads to the extinction of animal species 17 00:00:47,256 --> 00:00:48,674 across the planet. 18 00:00:49,007 --> 00:00:50,925 The impact of the disaster was devastating. 19 00:00:50,926 --> 00:00:53,261 North America lost 70% of its large mammals, 20 00:00:53,262 --> 00:00:54,428 known as megafauna. 21 00:00:54,429 --> 00:00:57,682 Exactly how and why certain species survived 22 00:00:57,683 --> 00:01:00,142 has been a source of fascination and debate 23 00:01:00,143 --> 00:01:03,021 amongst palaeontologists for decades. 24 00:01:06,191 --> 00:01:09,110 All over the world incredible discoveries 25 00:01:09,111 --> 00:01:12,406 are being revealed by devastating events. 26 00:01:12,739 --> 00:01:14,615 Floods, earthquakes, 27 00:01:14,616 --> 00:01:17,618 droughts, hurricanes, 28 00:01:17,619 --> 00:01:19,912 volcanic eruptions. 29 00:01:19,913 --> 00:01:25,042 Trails of destruction expose extraordinary history. 30 00:01:25,043 --> 00:01:28,921 This is Discovered by Disaster. 31 00:01:40,434 --> 00:01:45,730 On April 15, 2019, Paris' famed Notre-Dame Cathedral, 32 00:01:45,731 --> 00:01:48,482 a stunning example of Gothic architecture 33 00:01:48,483 --> 00:01:50,651 dating to the 12th century, 34 00:01:50,652 --> 00:01:53,571 became engulfed in flames. 35 00:01:53,572 --> 00:01:54,822 Notre-Dame Cathedral's roof 36 00:01:54,823 --> 00:01:59,244 is clad in lead, over 450 tons of it. 37 00:01:59,369 --> 00:02:02,204 Now, this fire is so hot that that lead is burning, 38 00:02:02,205 --> 00:02:06,250 being carried skyward in billows of yellow smoke, 39 00:02:06,251 --> 00:02:10,421 and it's also raining down over the firefighters' helmets. 40 00:02:10,422 --> 00:02:13,507 Barely an hour later, the iconic spire collapses, 41 00:02:13,508 --> 00:02:15,009 crashing through the roof 42 00:02:15,010 --> 00:02:18,095 and the cathedral's famous vaulted ceiling. 43 00:02:23,310 --> 00:02:25,311 France's president promptly pledges 44 00:02:25,312 --> 00:02:27,855 that Notre-Dame Cathedral will be rebuilt 45 00:02:27,856 --> 00:02:30,149 more beautiful than before, 46 00:02:30,150 --> 00:02:33,694 and that the job will be completed within five years. 47 00:02:33,695 --> 00:02:36,530 But the problem is that the building's masonry 48 00:02:36,531 --> 00:02:38,866 has suffered severe heat damage, 49 00:02:38,867 --> 00:02:41,702 rendering the remaining structure unstable. 50 00:02:41,703 --> 00:02:46,499 Restoration can't even start until it's made safe. 51 00:02:46,500 --> 00:02:49,126 After over two years of painstaking work 52 00:02:49,127 --> 00:02:51,545 ensuring that the cathedral was stable enough 53 00:02:51,546 --> 00:02:53,381 to begin the restoration, 54 00:02:53,382 --> 00:02:56,384 the project is finally set in motion. 55 00:02:58,261 --> 00:03:01,514 Rebuilding the roof and installing a new spire 56 00:03:01,515 --> 00:03:05,559 will require 100-foot-high scaffold, 57 00:03:05,560 --> 00:03:07,728 weighing over 600 tons, 58 00:03:07,729 --> 00:03:12,942 to be erected in the crossing of the transept. 59 00:03:12,943 --> 00:03:14,568 Many Christian churches are laid out 60 00:03:14,569 --> 00:03:16,821 essentially in the shape of a crucifix. 61 00:03:16,822 --> 00:03:19,407 The crosspiece is called the transept. 62 00:03:19,408 --> 00:03:21,909 The center, the crossing of the transept, 63 00:03:21,910 --> 00:03:24,328 is an especially sacred area. 64 00:03:24,329 --> 00:03:25,913 You can't put a scaffold there 65 00:03:25,914 --> 00:03:28,833 unless you're sure the floor can take the weight. 66 00:03:31,253 --> 00:03:33,337 Archaeologists are granted permission 67 00:03:33,338 --> 00:03:35,923 to conduct an exploratory excavation 68 00:03:35,924 --> 00:03:37,883 under a specific set of tiles, 69 00:03:37,884 --> 00:03:40,928 to assess the ground's integrity. 70 00:03:40,929 --> 00:03:45,349 As workers begin removing sand and lime from under the floor, 71 00:03:45,350 --> 00:03:47,852 they make a startling discovery. 72 00:03:47,853 --> 00:03:49,770 It's a head and a pair of hands, 73 00:03:49,771 --> 00:03:51,981 but it's not a literal head and hands. 74 00:03:51,982 --> 00:03:54,608 It's a statue of a man's head 75 00:03:54,609 --> 00:03:58,779 and a pair of hands set together as though in prayer. 76 00:03:58,780 --> 00:04:01,949 What is it doing here? 77 00:04:01,950 --> 00:04:05,286 Hundreds more carved wood pieces turned up. 78 00:04:05,287 --> 00:04:09,498 Hands, feet, faces, decorative shapes, 79 00:04:09,499 --> 00:04:12,084 and carvings of plants. 80 00:04:12,085 --> 00:04:13,169 None of these look like 81 00:04:13,170 --> 00:04:15,463 they were just crammed in here, though. 82 00:04:15,464 --> 00:04:19,133 These objects were placed here with care. 83 00:04:19,134 --> 00:04:22,636 The exploratory dig faces a strict time limit. 84 00:04:22,637 --> 00:04:26,640 The pieces are carefully set aside so work can proceed. 85 00:04:26,641 --> 00:04:29,810 But then everything stops. 86 00:04:29,811 --> 00:04:31,145 Four to six inches below 87 00:04:31,146 --> 00:04:33,105 where the floor tiles had been, 88 00:04:33,106 --> 00:04:34,982 there's a large metal box. 89 00:04:34,983 --> 00:04:37,318 It's about six feet by a foot and a half, 90 00:04:37,319 --> 00:04:39,028 and not that deep. 91 00:04:39,029 --> 00:04:41,947 And it's completely sealed up. 92 00:04:41,948 --> 00:04:43,991 It seems to have been warped by the weight 93 00:04:43,992 --> 00:04:47,161 of the earth and stones pressing down on it. 94 00:04:47,162 --> 00:04:50,831 And given the color and texture, it looks to be made of lead. 95 00:04:50,832 --> 00:04:52,666 But what's inside it? 96 00:04:52,667 --> 00:04:54,335 Fully uncovering the container reveals 97 00:04:54,336 --> 00:04:56,837 this brass plate with a name on it. 98 00:04:56,838 --> 00:04:58,839 "Antoine de la Porte." 99 00:04:58,840 --> 00:05:02,426 And in French it says that Antoine de la Porte died 100 00:05:02,427 --> 00:05:07,723 in his 83rd year on December 24, 1710. 101 00:05:07,724 --> 00:05:09,183 This is a sarcophagus. 102 00:05:09,184 --> 00:05:11,352 It's a coffin. 103 00:05:11,353 --> 00:05:14,104 Burials in cathedrals, under the floor like this, 104 00:05:14,105 --> 00:05:15,439 were actually practiced in Europe 105 00:05:15,440 --> 00:05:18,234 throughout the medieval and modern periods. 106 00:05:18,235 --> 00:05:20,694 The most sought-after placements were near the choir, 107 00:05:20,695 --> 00:05:23,197 under the transept, just like this one. 108 00:05:23,198 --> 00:05:26,033 But why make a coffin out of lead? 109 00:05:26,034 --> 00:05:28,619 Nowadays the dangers of lead water pipes 110 00:05:28,620 --> 00:05:31,205 and lead-based paints are well known. 111 00:05:31,206 --> 00:05:35,543 But in medieval times, lead was a special substance. 112 00:05:35,544 --> 00:05:38,546 When you burn lead, it leaves behind 113 00:05:38,547 --> 00:05:41,006 a yellowish, ashy powder. 114 00:05:41,007 --> 00:05:42,716 Hence, alchemists concluded, 115 00:05:42,717 --> 00:05:46,971 there must be a way to turn lead into gold, 116 00:05:46,972 --> 00:05:51,100 which gave lead a certain cachet. 117 00:05:51,101 --> 00:05:53,227 Lead is also associated with transformation 118 00:05:53,228 --> 00:05:54,311 and resurrection. 119 00:05:54,312 --> 00:05:56,814 So it's perfect for transporting someone 120 00:05:56,815 --> 00:05:59,483 on what would be their final journey. 121 00:05:59,484 --> 00:06:02,069 So, wealthy people, members of the elite, 122 00:06:02,070 --> 00:06:05,573 often had their coffins made of lead. 123 00:06:05,574 --> 00:06:08,492 But was someone actually interred in this coffin? 124 00:06:08,493 --> 00:06:10,829 And if so, who? 125 00:06:12,998 --> 00:06:14,748 The attending archaeologists note 126 00:06:14,749 --> 00:06:18,586 a small hole at one end of the sarcophagus 127 00:06:18,587 --> 00:06:23,465 and use it to insert a flexible endoscopic camera, 128 00:06:23,466 --> 00:06:25,259 similar to what doctors use 129 00:06:25,260 --> 00:06:28,762 to see inside a patient's digestive tract. 130 00:06:28,763 --> 00:06:32,433 You can see human bones and hair and textile remains. 131 00:06:32,434 --> 00:06:34,894 Maybe clothing or a burial shroud? 132 00:06:34,895 --> 00:06:36,770 There's tremendous potential here 133 00:06:36,771 --> 00:06:39,440 to learn about medieval burial customs-- 134 00:06:39,441 --> 00:06:41,567 if permission can be gained 135 00:06:41,568 --> 00:06:44,612 to actually open this sarcophagus up. 136 00:06:44,613 --> 00:06:49,074 For now, all we've got to go on is this dated brass nameplate. 137 00:06:49,075 --> 00:06:52,786 Who was Antoine de la Porte? 138 00:06:52,787 --> 00:06:55,122 Historians consult the church's records 139 00:06:55,123 --> 00:06:58,667 from the late 1600s and early 1700s. 140 00:06:58,668 --> 00:07:02,296 The records are illuminating. 141 00:07:02,297 --> 00:07:04,256 Antoine de la Porte was a canon, 142 00:07:04,257 --> 00:07:08,469 which is a member of the clergy responsible for a cathedral. 143 00:07:08,470 --> 00:07:11,138 Now, many of us, when we hear clergy, 144 00:07:11,139 --> 00:07:12,640 might think of an ordained clerk 145 00:07:12,641 --> 00:07:15,059 who lives for and serves the church, 146 00:07:15,060 --> 00:07:18,812 but De la Porte was wealthy. 147 00:07:18,813 --> 00:07:20,147 De la Porte gave lots of money 148 00:07:20,148 --> 00:07:21,899 to Notre-Dame Cathedral, which would explain 149 00:07:21,900 --> 00:07:24,818 how he got such a prestigious resting place. 150 00:07:24,819 --> 00:07:27,905 At one point, he contributed funds for the renovation 151 00:07:27,906 --> 00:07:29,448 of the cathedral's choir, 152 00:07:29,449 --> 00:07:33,661 which included the removal of the rood screen. 153 00:07:33,662 --> 00:07:35,996 The rood screen, or chancel screen, 154 00:07:35,997 --> 00:07:37,456 was a feature of some churches 155 00:07:37,457 --> 00:07:41,168 that separated the clergy from the congregation. 156 00:07:41,169 --> 00:07:45,255 By the end of the 17th century, after the Counter-Reformation, 157 00:07:45,256 --> 00:07:49,510 most churches had decided to remove their rood screens. 158 00:07:49,511 --> 00:07:53,180 But Notre-Dame Cathedral hadn't done that yet. 159 00:07:53,181 --> 00:07:55,349 Notre-Dame Cathedral was long overdue 160 00:07:55,350 --> 00:07:59,103 to get with the times and have its rood screen dismantled, 161 00:07:59,104 --> 00:08:03,649 when De la Porte offered up the money to have it done. 162 00:08:03,650 --> 00:08:05,109 So those carved wood pieces 163 00:08:05,110 --> 00:08:07,778 were probably parts of the rood screen. 164 00:08:07,779 --> 00:08:11,156 And the way they were arranged around De la Porte's coffin, 165 00:08:11,157 --> 00:08:15,369 it's now clear they were intended to form a kind of tomb. 166 00:08:15,370 --> 00:08:18,038 In light of the archaeological discoveries, 167 00:08:18,039 --> 00:08:20,708 a small extension of the timeframe is granted 168 00:08:20,709 --> 00:08:23,168 for the exploratory excavation. 169 00:08:23,169 --> 00:08:25,379 Now things get a little wild. 170 00:08:25,380 --> 00:08:28,507 In that same small area under the crossing of the transept, 171 00:08:28,508 --> 00:08:30,551 but a little further underground, 172 00:08:30,552 --> 00:08:35,222 still only a few feet deep, another lead sarcophagus. 173 00:08:35,223 --> 00:08:36,348 So, what's going on? 174 00:08:36,349 --> 00:08:39,518 Were these two sarcophagi put here together? 175 00:08:39,519 --> 00:08:41,228 This second sarcophagus 176 00:08:41,229 --> 00:08:46,567 has no identifying nameplate, and it's of a different style. 177 00:08:46,568 --> 00:08:49,069 It appears to have been molded closely 178 00:08:49,070 --> 00:08:51,822 around its occupant's body. 179 00:08:51,823 --> 00:08:53,657 By its different color, 180 00:08:53,658 --> 00:08:57,494 it's clearly not the same alloy of lead. 181 00:08:57,495 --> 00:09:00,914 And this is key, because it was buried deeper 182 00:09:00,915 --> 00:09:05,335 than the first one, it may be quite a bit older. 183 00:09:05,336 --> 00:09:07,421 This coffin also shows damage, 184 00:09:07,422 --> 00:09:09,506 allowing archaeologists at the site 185 00:09:09,507 --> 00:09:13,052 to insert their endoscopic camera in for a peek. 186 00:09:13,053 --> 00:09:14,678 Again, there are bones visible, 187 00:09:14,679 --> 00:09:16,430 but no hair can be seen. 188 00:09:16,431 --> 00:09:20,059 But there is something the other sarcophagus doesn't have: 189 00:09:20,060 --> 00:09:21,894 plants. 190 00:09:21,895 --> 00:09:25,105 They around the head area and the abdomen. 191 00:09:25,106 --> 00:09:27,274 So could they be for decoration? 192 00:09:27,275 --> 00:09:29,485 Was this person a plant-lover? 193 00:09:29,486 --> 00:09:31,446 A botanist perhaps? 194 00:09:32,530 --> 00:09:35,157 The time allotted for the excavation expires 195 00:09:35,158 --> 00:09:38,619 and no further extension is granted. 196 00:09:38,620 --> 00:09:41,831 The sarcophagi are delivered to Toulouse University Hospital, 197 00:09:41,956 --> 00:09:46,085 350 miles away, where they can be opened. 198 00:09:46,086 --> 00:09:49,171 De la Porte's coffin confirms much of what archaeologists 199 00:09:49,172 --> 00:09:52,966 had surmised, but offers surprises, as well. 200 00:09:52,967 --> 00:09:55,512 The bones of the big toe on one of his feet 201 00:09:55,762 --> 00:09:57,262 shows possible signs of gout, 202 00:09:57,263 --> 00:09:59,307 which is an inflammatory arthritis 203 00:09:59,724 --> 00:10:02,810 also known as the disease of kings. 204 00:10:02,811 --> 00:10:04,686 All of this aligns with what we knew, 205 00:10:04,687 --> 00:10:08,482 that he was wealthy and a member of the clergy. 206 00:10:08,483 --> 00:10:09,566 De la Porte's teeth 207 00:10:09,567 --> 00:10:11,151 are in remarkably great shape, though. 208 00:10:11,152 --> 00:10:15,114 I mean, this guy was 83 years old, and it was the 1700s, 209 00:10:15,115 --> 00:10:17,199 and somehow he still has great teeth. 210 00:10:17,200 --> 00:10:19,660 Hats off to this man, because most 83-year-olds 211 00:10:19,661 --> 00:10:21,787 in modern times can't do that. 212 00:10:21,788 --> 00:10:24,998 The other, anonymous sarcophagus raises questions, 213 00:10:24,999 --> 00:10:28,669 and eyebrows, from the moment it's opened. 214 00:10:28,670 --> 00:10:30,170 The top of this person's skull 215 00:10:30,171 --> 00:10:31,880 has been sawed right off, 216 00:10:31,881 --> 00:10:35,259 right across the forehead and around the back. 217 00:10:35,260 --> 00:10:37,511 They identify the plants in his coffin 218 00:10:37,512 --> 00:10:43,183 as aromatic herbs, which were sometimes used in embalming. 219 00:10:43,184 --> 00:10:47,688 And part of the embalming process was to remove the brain. 220 00:10:47,689 --> 00:10:51,024 So, sawing the skull open. 221 00:10:51,025 --> 00:10:53,652 Close examination of the leaves of the herbs 222 00:10:53,653 --> 00:10:57,239 seems to confirm something for the archaeologists. 223 00:10:57,240 --> 00:10:59,491 The man's chest also showed signs 224 00:10:59,492 --> 00:11:01,702 of having been opened up after death, 225 00:11:01,703 --> 00:11:04,204 which would also have been part of the process. 226 00:11:04,205 --> 00:11:06,331 So, this person was embalmed! 227 00:11:06,332 --> 00:11:08,083 But when? 228 00:11:08,084 --> 00:11:10,794 Embalming did grow more common 229 00:11:10,795 --> 00:11:13,297 after about the mid-16th century. 230 00:11:13,298 --> 00:11:17,217 So that could be approximately when this person died. 231 00:11:17,218 --> 00:11:20,387 This doesn't tell us how he died, though. 232 00:11:20,388 --> 00:11:23,473 As archaeologists continue to study the skeleton, 233 00:11:23,474 --> 00:11:26,727 they see that it contrasts in almost every way 234 00:11:26,728 --> 00:11:28,061 to De la Porte's. 235 00:11:28,062 --> 00:11:29,897 We know from the brass plate that De la Porte 236 00:11:29,898 --> 00:11:31,231 lived into his 83rd year 237 00:11:31,232 --> 00:11:33,817 and that he had great teeth right to the end. 238 00:11:33,818 --> 00:11:37,196 This person died around the age of 30 years old, 239 00:11:37,197 --> 00:11:41,575 and by then they'd already lost almost all of their teeth. 240 00:11:41,576 --> 00:11:44,244 Examination of the inside of his skull 241 00:11:44,245 --> 00:11:49,374 reveals the likely cause of death: chronic meningitis, 242 00:11:49,375 --> 00:11:51,627 an inflammation of the layers of tissue 243 00:11:51,628 --> 00:11:54,421 that cover the brain and spinal cord. 244 00:11:54,422 --> 00:11:58,425 It would have been a painful end to his life. 245 00:11:58,426 --> 00:12:00,510 There is one more remarkable aspect 246 00:12:00,511 --> 00:12:03,847 to this person's skull: the shape. 247 00:12:03,848 --> 00:12:06,016 This skull shows evidence of what's known 248 00:12:06,017 --> 00:12:09,102 as intentional craniofacial remodeling. 249 00:12:09,103 --> 00:12:12,314 A young child's skull, while still soft and growing, 250 00:12:12,315 --> 00:12:16,360 would be wrapped with cloth to intentionally affect its shape; 251 00:12:16,361 --> 00:12:20,072 another custom popular amongst the aristocracy. 252 00:12:20,073 --> 00:12:21,949 And deformation of his pelvic bone 253 00:12:21,950 --> 00:12:24,451 suggests he rode horses from childhood. 254 00:12:24,452 --> 00:12:27,287 So it's possible he was a cavalier, 255 00:12:27,288 --> 00:12:29,790 or in other words, a knight. 256 00:12:30,875 --> 00:12:32,334 After two years of research, 257 00:12:32,335 --> 00:12:34,795 scholars now think that the skeleton could be 258 00:12:34,796 --> 00:12:38,632 Joachim du Bellay, a prominent French Renaissance poet 259 00:12:38,633 --> 00:12:40,968 who died in 1560. 260 00:12:40,969 --> 00:12:44,763 There are almost certainly more discoveries waiting to be made 261 00:12:44,764 --> 00:12:47,140 under Notre-Dame Cathedral's floor. 262 00:12:47,141 --> 00:12:49,935 Whatever's there has waited all this time. 263 00:12:49,936 --> 00:12:52,980 It can probably wait a few hundred years more, 264 00:12:52,981 --> 00:12:54,648 for the next opportunity, 265 00:12:54,649 --> 00:12:57,777 hopefully under better circumstances. 266 00:13:06,494 --> 00:13:10,497 In approximately 850 BCE, a fire tore 267 00:13:10,498 --> 00:13:12,416 through a close-knit Bronze Age settlement 268 00:13:12,417 --> 00:13:14,918 in what is now southeastern England, 269 00:13:14,919 --> 00:13:18,297 forcing families to flee as their wood and grass homes 270 00:13:18,298 --> 00:13:21,092 exploded into flames around them. 271 00:13:21,217 --> 00:13:22,801 The Bronze Age is a really important 272 00:13:22,802 --> 00:13:26,096 but very little understood period in our prehistory. 273 00:13:26,097 --> 00:13:29,766 It's the time between the Stone Age and the Iron Age. 274 00:13:29,767 --> 00:13:32,269 So, basically, how did we make that transformation 275 00:13:32,270 --> 00:13:36,315 from Stonehenge to the Roman Empire? 276 00:13:36,316 --> 00:13:38,692 With every new thing we learn about the Bronze Age, 277 00:13:38,693 --> 00:13:41,945 the more we realize what a huge step forward it was. 278 00:13:41,946 --> 00:13:43,280 But it's hard, 279 00:13:43,281 --> 00:13:45,657 because aside from the bronze tools and weapons 280 00:13:45,658 --> 00:13:47,868 that the age is named for, 281 00:13:47,869 --> 00:13:52,039 so much of what humans made back then hasn't survived. 282 00:13:52,040 --> 00:13:53,123 A few miles east 283 00:13:53,124 --> 00:13:55,167 of present-day Peterborough, England, 284 00:13:55,168 --> 00:13:57,669 an archaeologist acting on a local tip 285 00:13:57,670 --> 00:14:01,006 visits a disused quarry known as Must Farm 286 00:14:01,007 --> 00:14:03,508 and observes a handful of charred and rotting 287 00:14:03,509 --> 00:14:06,344 wooden posts protruding from the ground. 288 00:14:06,345 --> 00:14:07,888 Anybody else who had seen 289 00:14:07,889 --> 00:14:11,850 these ugly old timbers sticking up probably assumed 290 00:14:11,851 --> 00:14:15,896 that they were remnants from the quarry days. 291 00:14:15,897 --> 00:14:17,856 Researchers from Cambridge University's 292 00:14:17,857 --> 00:14:22,319 Archaeological Unit are summoned for a second opinion. 293 00:14:22,320 --> 00:14:24,154 More posts are uncovered. 294 00:14:24,155 --> 00:14:26,573 It looks like the remains of a structure. 295 00:14:26,574 --> 00:14:30,243 But what was it and who built it? 296 00:14:30,244 --> 00:14:32,329 A dendrochronological analysis 297 00:14:32,330 --> 00:14:34,372 of at least one of these posts 298 00:14:34,373 --> 00:14:36,666 determines the oak tree it came from 299 00:14:36,667 --> 00:14:40,837 was felled between 1290 and 1247 BCE. 300 00:14:40,838 --> 00:14:43,131 That's during the Middle Bronze Age! 301 00:14:43,132 --> 00:14:46,635 So there is something to this find. 302 00:14:46,636 --> 00:14:49,596 This whole area was a very different environment 303 00:14:49,597 --> 00:14:51,932 until it was drained and converted to farmland 304 00:14:51,933 --> 00:14:53,934 four centuries ago. 305 00:14:53,935 --> 00:14:57,104 Before that, it was in its natural state, a fen; 306 00:14:57,105 --> 00:14:58,772 an ancient, watery marshland 307 00:14:58,773 --> 00:15:02,400 supporting all kinds of creatures and humans. 308 00:15:02,401 --> 00:15:06,238 Scattered around were human bones 309 00:15:06,239 --> 00:15:10,283 and a number of intentionally broken artifacts. 310 00:15:10,284 --> 00:15:12,619 Personal items like jewelry and weapons 311 00:15:12,620 --> 00:15:15,914 were smashed and tossed into the water. 312 00:15:15,915 --> 00:15:18,625 As the excavation at Must Farm expands, 313 00:15:18,626 --> 00:15:22,504 the support posts of not one but four round structures 314 00:15:22,505 --> 00:15:23,922 come to light. 315 00:15:23,923 --> 00:15:25,674 The largest would have covered an area 316 00:15:25,675 --> 00:15:30,137 of around 500 square feet, about the size of a small apartment. 317 00:15:30,138 --> 00:15:34,141 And there's also one smaller, rectangular structure. 318 00:15:34,142 --> 00:15:36,143 All these platforms were originally 319 00:15:36,144 --> 00:15:39,813 perhaps six or seven feet above the riverbed. 320 00:15:39,814 --> 00:15:42,190 There's also evidence of what looks like 321 00:15:42,191 --> 00:15:45,485 a raised walkway connecting them. 322 00:15:45,486 --> 00:15:47,154 Broadening their investigation, 323 00:15:47,155 --> 00:15:50,824 the archaeologists discover dozens of artifacts. 324 00:15:52,660 --> 00:15:55,453 Many of the artifacts found at Must Farm are unbroken 325 00:15:55,454 --> 00:15:57,289 and in remarkable condition. 326 00:15:57,290 --> 00:16:01,293 There are clay pots, remains of wooden buckets, and bronze axes, 327 00:16:01,294 --> 00:16:04,546 even with portions of their wooden handles. 328 00:16:04,547 --> 00:16:06,506 The presence of these intact artifacts tells us 329 00:16:06,507 --> 00:16:08,675 that this was not a place for the dead; 330 00:16:08,676 --> 00:16:10,302 it was a place for the living. 331 00:16:10,303 --> 00:16:13,306 These weren't funeral platforms; they were houses. 332 00:16:14,765 --> 00:16:17,517 This place carries the echoes of daily life. 333 00:16:17,518 --> 00:16:20,270 A pottery bowl still holding parts of a meal: 334 00:16:20,271 --> 00:16:22,981 wheat grain porridge mixed with animal fat. 335 00:16:22,982 --> 00:16:26,693 A wooden spatula rests against the inside of the bowl. 336 00:16:26,694 --> 00:16:28,236 Around the round houses, 337 00:16:28,237 --> 00:16:31,656 a row of ash wood posts, forming a palisade, 338 00:16:31,657 --> 00:16:35,410 a protective fence or wall, is discovered. 339 00:16:35,411 --> 00:16:36,786 But the palisade doesn't run 340 00:16:36,787 --> 00:16:38,955 all the way around the houses. 341 00:16:38,956 --> 00:16:43,835 It seems to form half of a rough oval, and then stops. 342 00:16:43,836 --> 00:16:47,047 The ends of that oval shape are right up against 343 00:16:47,048 --> 00:16:51,051 the edge of where the old clay quarry was. 344 00:16:51,052 --> 00:16:53,803 So basically, when the quarry was active 345 00:16:53,804 --> 00:16:58,600 during the 1960s and '70s, roughly half of the settlement, 346 00:16:58,601 --> 00:17:01,186 including the rest of that palisade, 347 00:17:01,187 --> 00:17:05,732 was unknowingly torn away. 348 00:17:05,733 --> 00:17:07,901 Surveying the scene, the team notices 349 00:17:07,902 --> 00:17:12,572 what appear to be roof timbers radiating out from the center. 350 00:17:12,573 --> 00:17:16,076 But strangely, these roofs are sitting flat down 351 00:17:16,077 --> 00:17:18,411 over the bottoms of the support posts, 352 00:17:18,412 --> 00:17:22,582 as though they had collapsed straight down. 353 00:17:22,583 --> 00:17:24,251 Parts of these roof timbers had clearly been 354 00:17:24,252 --> 00:17:26,878 subjected to intense heat at some point. 355 00:17:26,879 --> 00:17:28,546 And that's when the realization comes 356 00:17:28,547 --> 00:17:30,423 that this settlement burned down, 357 00:17:30,424 --> 00:17:33,552 that these houses were destroyed in a catastrophic fire. 358 00:17:35,680 --> 00:17:38,557 The roofs were thatched out of three layers-- 359 00:17:38,558 --> 00:17:42,769 straw, turf and clay-- to make them rainproof. 360 00:17:42,770 --> 00:17:46,439 That would have made them extremely heavy. 361 00:17:46,440 --> 00:17:48,441 So once those oak support posts 362 00:17:48,442 --> 00:17:51,111 had been compromised by the fire, 363 00:17:51,112 --> 00:17:54,739 the roof would have come down and pancaked everything, 364 00:17:54,740 --> 00:17:58,702 walls, floors, and all the contents inside those homes, 365 00:17:58,703 --> 00:18:01,580 straight down into the water. 366 00:18:01,581 --> 00:18:05,083 The moment those heavy roofs collapsed into the water, 367 00:18:05,084 --> 00:18:07,419 the fire was instantly extinguished. 368 00:18:07,420 --> 00:18:11,298 So, much of the material did not burn completely. 369 00:18:11,299 --> 00:18:13,633 The fire that destroyed this settlement 370 00:18:13,634 --> 00:18:15,677 also helped preserve it. 371 00:18:15,678 --> 00:18:16,887 But what caused it? 372 00:18:18,973 --> 00:18:20,140 Soot deposits are found 373 00:18:20,141 --> 00:18:21,808 on parts of the surviving structures, 374 00:18:21,809 --> 00:18:26,062 confirming the presence of hearths or cooking fires. 375 00:18:26,063 --> 00:18:27,147 Because there's soot 376 00:18:27,148 --> 00:18:29,691 only on the largely unburned roof timbers, 377 00:18:29,692 --> 00:18:34,154 it's clear that those areas aren't where the fire started. 378 00:18:34,155 --> 00:18:36,865 That doesn't mean the cause wasn't a cooking fire; 379 00:18:36,866 --> 00:18:40,785 there's just no conclusive evidence that it was. 380 00:18:40,786 --> 00:18:42,912 As carbon-dating results come in, 381 00:18:42,913 --> 00:18:46,541 the archaeologists get some surprising information. 382 00:18:46,542 --> 00:18:48,001 The ash posts from the palisade 383 00:18:48,002 --> 00:18:51,296 yield a date range between 1000 and 800 BCE. 384 00:18:51,297 --> 00:18:53,173 Now that's a lot later than the initial dating 385 00:18:53,174 --> 00:18:55,175 of the houses' support posts. 386 00:18:55,176 --> 00:18:59,763 Those results came back as between 1290 and 1247 BCE. 387 00:18:59,764 --> 00:19:01,514 So after hundreds of years of being fine 388 00:19:01,515 --> 00:19:04,017 without any protective enclosure, 389 00:19:04,018 --> 00:19:06,353 did some threat suddenly make the inhabitants feel 390 00:19:06,354 --> 00:19:08,271 they had to make one? 391 00:19:08,272 --> 00:19:10,565 What's also interesting is that there are 392 00:19:10,566 --> 00:19:12,525 scattered ash wood chips 393 00:19:12,526 --> 00:19:15,904 left over from the construction of the palisade. 394 00:19:15,905 --> 00:19:18,782 These chips are unburned, of course, 395 00:19:18,783 --> 00:19:22,869 because they had always been underwater. 396 00:19:22,870 --> 00:19:27,624 But the debris from the fire lies directly on top of them. 397 00:19:27,625 --> 00:19:31,753 So the fire occurred soon after the palisade was built, 398 00:19:31,754 --> 00:19:33,713 which begs the question, 399 00:19:33,714 --> 00:19:38,343 was the fire the result of an enemy attack? 400 00:19:38,344 --> 00:19:40,887 Further excavations at the Must Farm site 401 00:19:40,888 --> 00:19:42,222 reveal a treasure trove 402 00:19:42,223 --> 00:19:45,393 of well-preserved tools and weapons. 403 00:19:45,810 --> 00:19:47,894 There are bronze sickles for cultivating grasses 404 00:19:47,895 --> 00:19:53,401 or crops, bronze axes and curved gouges for shaping wood. 405 00:19:53,818 --> 00:19:55,735 There's a stack of bronze-tipped spears 406 00:19:55,736 --> 00:19:59,407 with shafts over 11 feet long in one of the houses, 407 00:19:59,657 --> 00:20:02,742 and bronze swords with their edges still sharp. 408 00:20:04,328 --> 00:20:05,662 Now we know that during the Bronze Age, 409 00:20:05,663 --> 00:20:08,832 the human population grew, increasing competition, 410 00:20:08,833 --> 00:20:11,584 and therefore violence increased overall. 411 00:20:11,585 --> 00:20:13,002 So it's entirely possible 412 00:20:13,003 --> 00:20:15,880 that the settlement was burnt to the ground by outsiders. 413 00:20:15,881 --> 00:20:17,090 But why? 414 00:20:17,091 --> 00:20:19,884 One possible reason could be simple envy. 415 00:20:19,885 --> 00:20:23,263 You might call the people who lived at Must Farm well off, 416 00:20:23,264 --> 00:20:25,598 in relative terms. 417 00:20:25,599 --> 00:20:29,686 Among the vessels found at the site are these fine, tiny cups. 418 00:20:29,687 --> 00:20:31,604 It's beautiful, detailed work, 419 00:20:31,605 --> 00:20:34,274 just to make something more enjoyable to use. 420 00:20:34,275 --> 00:20:37,110 This wasn't minimal, subsistence living, 421 00:20:37,111 --> 00:20:41,865 so maybe this community was the envy of all others in this area. 422 00:20:41,866 --> 00:20:45,493 As the team continues to investigate the settlement, 423 00:20:45,494 --> 00:20:47,287 more details about the lifestyle 424 00:20:47,288 --> 00:20:49,706 of its inhabitants emerge. 425 00:20:49,707 --> 00:20:51,624 One of the most stunning finds 426 00:20:51,625 --> 00:20:55,044 is a range of finely woven textiles, 427 00:20:55,045 --> 00:20:58,089 again, miraculously preserved by the combination 428 00:20:58,090 --> 00:21:00,759 of surface carbonization from the fire 429 00:21:00,760 --> 00:21:05,805 and then being buried deep in the clay silt. 430 00:21:05,806 --> 00:21:07,140 Clearly there's a high level 431 00:21:07,141 --> 00:21:09,976 of skill and artistry involved here. 432 00:21:09,977 --> 00:21:12,979 There's also a tiny, charred ball of flax thread. 433 00:21:12,980 --> 00:21:15,482 with strands just 1/50 of an inch thick 434 00:21:15,483 --> 00:21:17,650 that has survived three millennia in the mud. 435 00:21:17,651 --> 00:21:18,943 And more than that, 436 00:21:18,944 --> 00:21:20,987 elements of the whole textile-making process are here, 437 00:21:20,988 --> 00:21:24,866 including part of a spindle and clay weights from a loom. 438 00:21:24,867 --> 00:21:26,618 And a beautiful necklace 439 00:21:26,619 --> 00:21:30,497 with beads of glass, amber, and siltstone was also found. 440 00:21:30,498 --> 00:21:32,707 Isotope testing determines that the beads 441 00:21:32,708 --> 00:21:35,460 came from as far away as Denmark, 442 00:21:35,461 --> 00:21:39,965 400 miles across the North Sea, and Iran. 443 00:21:41,926 --> 00:21:43,510 Via the waters of the fen, 444 00:21:43,511 --> 00:21:46,262 boats carrying goods for trade would not only have been able 445 00:21:46,263 --> 00:21:48,640 to travel between here and the North Sea, 446 00:21:48,641 --> 00:21:51,684 but also to the rest of the known world. 447 00:21:51,685 --> 00:21:54,521 That access to goods from faraway lands might have been 448 00:21:54,522 --> 00:21:58,691 one of the reasons why this area was chosen for the settlement. 449 00:21:58,692 --> 00:22:01,152 And also why others would have envied the people 450 00:22:01,153 --> 00:22:03,029 who lived in those houses. 451 00:22:03,030 --> 00:22:05,532 But we still can't say for certain that the settlement 452 00:22:05,533 --> 00:22:08,244 was burned down by jealous neighbors. 453 00:22:09,036 --> 00:22:11,162 When further detailed dating analysis 454 00:22:11,163 --> 00:22:13,540 of more of the wooden posts comes back, 455 00:22:13,541 --> 00:22:16,209 a pattern emerges-- one that changes 456 00:22:16,210 --> 00:22:19,921 archaeologists' views of the site yet again. 457 00:22:19,922 --> 00:22:21,506 It becomes clear that there are two eras 458 00:22:21,507 --> 00:22:23,842 of support posts within this site. 459 00:22:23,843 --> 00:22:25,844 Some posts are from an older causeway 460 00:22:25,845 --> 00:22:27,887 that predates the settlement structures. 461 00:22:27,888 --> 00:22:29,389 Those are the ones that were dated 462 00:22:29,390 --> 00:22:30,682 during the initial excavation 463 00:22:30,683 --> 00:22:35,061 and determined to be from between 1290 and 1247 BCE. 464 00:22:35,062 --> 00:22:37,480 At first it wasn't clear those were from an older causeway. 465 00:22:37,481 --> 00:22:40,233 They appeared to be part of these round house structures. 466 00:22:40,234 --> 00:22:42,569 So the causeway was actually built first. 467 00:22:42,570 --> 00:22:44,153 Three centuries later, 468 00:22:44,154 --> 00:22:46,739 that causeway had fallen out of use, 469 00:22:46,740 --> 00:22:50,451 and the tops of its posts would have been gone, 470 00:22:50,452 --> 00:22:52,745 completely rotted away. 471 00:22:52,746 --> 00:22:55,206 And then the second group of posts went in, 472 00:22:55,207 --> 00:22:58,001 the supports for this round house settlement, 473 00:22:58,002 --> 00:23:02,839 which was built overtop of the remains of the old causeway. 474 00:23:02,840 --> 00:23:04,757 The bottom line is, this intermingling 475 00:23:04,758 --> 00:23:07,260 of older and newer posts at the site 476 00:23:07,261 --> 00:23:09,262 led to an initial misunderstanding 477 00:23:09,263 --> 00:23:12,098 of the relative ages of the structures here. 478 00:23:12,099 --> 00:23:14,267 We now understand that the Must Farm settlement 479 00:23:14,268 --> 00:23:15,894 and its protective palisade 480 00:23:15,895 --> 00:23:18,104 weren't built over 300 years apart, 481 00:23:18,105 --> 00:23:19,856 as it originally appeared. 482 00:23:19,857 --> 00:23:22,567 They were actually built at the same time. 483 00:23:22,568 --> 00:23:24,694 What this means is there was no sudden need 484 00:23:24,695 --> 00:23:27,697 for extra security, centuries after the settlement was built. 485 00:23:27,698 --> 00:23:29,574 The need was felt from the start, 486 00:23:29,575 --> 00:23:33,119 when the settlement was established, about 850 BCE. 487 00:23:33,120 --> 00:23:36,372 These were clearly extremely dangerous times. 488 00:23:36,373 --> 00:23:39,083 The new data also solves another mystery 489 00:23:39,084 --> 00:23:41,628 that's been troubling researchers. 490 00:23:41,629 --> 00:23:44,130 There's no evidence of wood-boring beetles 491 00:23:44,131 --> 00:23:45,632 in the oak supports. 492 00:23:45,633 --> 00:23:47,634 And you'd expect to see some. 493 00:23:47,635 --> 00:23:52,305 Now we know why: The bugs never had the chance to move in. 494 00:23:52,306 --> 00:23:53,723 The settlement was new. 495 00:23:53,724 --> 00:23:57,101 It might only have been here for nine months or maybe a year 496 00:23:57,102 --> 00:23:59,896 before the fire destroyed it. 497 00:23:59,897 --> 00:24:02,357 As for what caused that fire, 498 00:24:02,358 --> 00:24:06,235 and where the families who fled from it ended up, 499 00:24:06,236 --> 00:24:08,154 we still don't know. 500 00:24:08,155 --> 00:24:10,823 The Must Farm site is the largest assemblage 501 00:24:10,824 --> 00:24:12,992 of domestic material ever recorded 502 00:24:12,993 --> 00:24:16,245 from a Late Bronze Age site in Great Britain. 503 00:24:16,246 --> 00:24:19,540 Its destruction by fire captured a moment in time, 504 00:24:19,541 --> 00:24:24,338 a virtual snapshot of Late Bronze Age life and culture. 505 00:24:35,516 --> 00:24:37,850 During the summer of 2015, 506 00:24:37,851 --> 00:24:42,063 record-breaking heat roasted the Canadian west. 507 00:24:42,064 --> 00:24:46,359 The provinces of Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia 508 00:24:46,360 --> 00:24:49,195 were severely hit. 509 00:24:49,196 --> 00:24:50,446 Over the four months, 510 00:24:50,447 --> 00:24:53,908 wildfires were burning at an unprecedented rate. 511 00:24:53,909 --> 00:24:55,076 By the end of summer, 512 00:24:55,077 --> 00:24:59,163 fires had burned up an area the size of Sicily. 513 00:24:59,164 --> 00:25:00,915 Thousands of people were evacuated 514 00:25:00,916 --> 00:25:02,875 from their homes and communities. 515 00:25:02,876 --> 00:25:05,461 Because resources were stretched to the limit, 516 00:25:05,462 --> 00:25:07,880 the Canadian military had to be called in 517 00:25:07,881 --> 00:25:11,217 and international aid mobilized. 518 00:25:11,218 --> 00:25:12,468 Water restrictions were put in place 519 00:25:12,469 --> 00:25:14,012 to reduce consumption. 520 00:25:14,013 --> 00:25:15,722 That, combined with the raging fires, 521 00:25:15,723 --> 00:25:18,349 heavily impacted farmers' crop yields. 522 00:25:18,350 --> 00:25:19,559 Even if their fields didn't burn, 523 00:25:19,560 --> 00:25:21,728 they still couldn't water them properly. 524 00:25:21,729 --> 00:25:25,023 Late in August, on a farm close to Viking, Alberta, 525 00:25:25,024 --> 00:25:27,942 a farmer was surveying his devastated crops 526 00:25:27,943 --> 00:25:31,779 when he came upon a badger digging around in his field. 527 00:25:31,780 --> 00:25:33,614 The animal had exposed something 528 00:25:33,615 --> 00:25:36,034 completely unexpected. 529 00:25:40,914 --> 00:25:44,584 There's a human skull as well as ribs and arm bones 530 00:25:44,585 --> 00:25:46,627 all scattered around the area. 531 00:25:46,628 --> 00:25:49,922 There's also a glass bead lying with the bones. 532 00:25:49,923 --> 00:25:53,718 Now, this farm has been in operation since 1937, 533 00:25:53,719 --> 00:25:57,055 and there's never been any sign of a burial on that property 534 00:25:57,056 --> 00:25:58,931 over those eight decades. 535 00:25:58,932 --> 00:26:01,768 So who's buried here? 536 00:26:02,853 --> 00:26:03,936 Because of the possibility 537 00:26:03,937 --> 00:26:05,188 that it could be a crime scene, 538 00:26:05,189 --> 00:26:07,940 the police were initially called in to investigate, 539 00:26:07,941 --> 00:26:12,028 but they quickly concluded that no crime had taken place. 540 00:26:12,029 --> 00:26:13,237 They passed the case on 541 00:26:13,238 --> 00:26:17,950 to the office of the chief medical examiner. 542 00:26:17,951 --> 00:26:20,244 The farmer's family had been working this land 543 00:26:20,245 --> 00:26:22,622 for most of the 20th century. 544 00:26:22,623 --> 00:26:24,040 But before it became farmland, 545 00:26:24,041 --> 00:26:26,667 Indigenous communities had been calling this area home 546 00:26:26,668 --> 00:26:28,628 for thousands of years. 547 00:26:28,629 --> 00:26:30,588 So there was a good chance that the remains 548 00:26:30,589 --> 00:26:34,592 were of an Indigenous person. 549 00:26:34,593 --> 00:26:36,302 The colonization of Canada was carried out 550 00:26:36,303 --> 00:26:39,472 in part through the signing of treaties between the government 551 00:26:39,473 --> 00:26:43,810 and the Indigenous nations that populated the country. 552 00:26:43,811 --> 00:26:48,231 In 1876, leaders of the Cree, Assiniboine and Ojibwe people 553 00:26:48,232 --> 00:26:50,817 signed Treaty 6 with the Canadian government 554 00:26:50,818 --> 00:26:54,779 and relinquished 121,000 square miles of land, 555 00:26:54,780 --> 00:26:58,032 an area about the size of Germany. 556 00:26:58,033 --> 00:27:00,451 A year later, Treaty 7 was signed by representatives 557 00:27:00,452 --> 00:27:02,495 of the Blackfoot people, who occupied an area 558 00:27:02,496 --> 00:27:06,332 of around 50,000 square miles in southern Alberta. 559 00:27:06,333 --> 00:27:07,959 On paper, these treaties guaranteed 560 00:27:07,960 --> 00:27:11,337 Indigenous populations reserves, annual payments, 561 00:27:11,338 --> 00:27:14,257 and the continued right to hunt and fish on public lands 562 00:27:14,258 --> 00:27:17,426 in exchange for the title to that very land. 563 00:27:17,427 --> 00:27:20,179 In reality, the treaties signed in good faith 564 00:27:20,180 --> 00:27:22,598 by Indigenous representatives across the country 565 00:27:22,599 --> 00:27:24,851 never provided what they were meant to guarantee. 566 00:27:24,852 --> 00:27:28,020 In effect, they were just huge land surrenders 567 00:27:28,021 --> 00:27:29,647 on this enormous scale, 568 00:27:29,648 --> 00:27:31,774 with the obligations that were set out on paper 569 00:27:31,775 --> 00:27:34,610 for the Canadian government never being met, 570 00:27:34,611 --> 00:27:36,946 even to this day. 571 00:27:36,947 --> 00:27:39,323 Although some of the bones had been disinterred 572 00:27:39,324 --> 00:27:41,200 by the badger, it was uncertain 573 00:27:41,201 --> 00:27:44,370 where the site of the actual burial was. 574 00:27:44,371 --> 00:27:46,539 So the team uses metal detectors 575 00:27:46,540 --> 00:27:48,374 and eventually gets a hit. 576 00:27:49,918 --> 00:27:52,003 At a depth of roughly a foot and a half, 577 00:27:52,004 --> 00:27:55,298 an almost completely intact skeleton is revealed. 578 00:27:55,299 --> 00:27:57,550 The pelvis has a wide and rounded shape, 579 00:27:57,551 --> 00:28:00,136 indicating that this is a female. 580 00:28:00,137 --> 00:28:02,179 Because of the badger's activity, 581 00:28:02,180 --> 00:28:04,557 some vertebrae and other bones are missing, 582 00:28:04,558 --> 00:28:08,895 so her size can't be determined by measuring the skeleton. 583 00:28:08,896 --> 00:28:10,396 To determine the height of an individual, 584 00:28:10,397 --> 00:28:12,690 scientists use the size of the femur 585 00:28:12,691 --> 00:28:15,234 and work off a four-to-one ratio. 586 00:28:15,235 --> 00:28:18,738 A femur is usually around 25% the size of an entire human, 587 00:28:18,739 --> 00:28:21,699 and in this case, her femur is around 16 inches, 588 00:28:21,700 --> 00:28:25,244 so she probably measured around five-foot-two. 589 00:28:25,245 --> 00:28:27,663 With a height like this, it's hard to know right off the bat 590 00:28:27,664 --> 00:28:30,958 if she was young or an adult when she passed away. 591 00:28:30,959 --> 00:28:33,002 But she does have all her adult teeth, 592 00:28:33,003 --> 00:28:34,921 meaning she's not a child. 593 00:28:34,922 --> 00:28:38,758 But other than teeth, there is another way of determining age 594 00:28:38,759 --> 00:28:42,511 by looking at a specific part of our bones. 595 00:28:42,512 --> 00:28:45,431 Human long bones, like the femur and humerus, 596 00:28:45,432 --> 00:28:47,934 have something called the epiphyseal plate, 597 00:28:47,935 --> 00:28:50,478 otherwise known as a growth plate. 598 00:28:50,479 --> 00:28:53,439 This is a piece of cartilage that exists in the bone 599 00:28:53,440 --> 00:28:55,733 when humans are growing. 600 00:28:55,734 --> 00:28:57,568 When this cartilage has turned to bone, 601 00:28:57,569 --> 00:29:00,613 it's an indicator that the bone has reached maturity. 602 00:29:00,614 --> 00:29:03,449 The stage of closure of this young girl's growth plates 603 00:29:03,450 --> 00:29:06,535 indicates she was around 13 or 14 years of age 604 00:29:06,536 --> 00:29:08,955 when she passed away. 605 00:29:08,956 --> 00:29:10,623 As the analysis continues, 606 00:29:10,624 --> 00:29:14,710 cavitation is discovered on parts of her vertebrae. 607 00:29:14,711 --> 00:29:18,381 These are little holes, or parts of bone that have died. 608 00:29:18,382 --> 00:29:20,591 And there are also signs in her shoulders 609 00:29:20,592 --> 00:29:22,969 that the bone has eroded. 610 00:29:22,970 --> 00:29:27,139 People lived hard, active lives back then. 611 00:29:27,140 --> 00:29:28,891 But this woman was young, 612 00:29:28,892 --> 00:29:31,811 so something else must have been going on. 613 00:29:31,812 --> 00:29:33,479 It could be the result of brucellosis, 614 00:29:33,480 --> 00:29:36,399 a bacterial infection known to damage bone in this manner. 615 00:29:36,400 --> 00:29:39,068 It's a chronic infection of the lungs and also presents symptoms 616 00:29:39,069 --> 00:29:41,487 that include things like joint and muscle pain, 617 00:29:41,488 --> 00:29:43,489 fevers and sweating. 618 00:29:43,490 --> 00:29:44,824 But whether or not this young woman died 619 00:29:44,825 --> 00:29:47,076 as a result of brucellosis, we can't say, 620 00:29:47,077 --> 00:29:50,663 though her quality of life would have been severely impacted. 621 00:29:50,664 --> 00:29:52,498 Continuing with the excavation, 622 00:29:52,499 --> 00:29:57,169 4,500 glass beads are recovered from the grave. 623 00:29:57,170 --> 00:29:58,462 The beads are spherical, 624 00:29:58,463 --> 00:29:59,839 and almost all of them are white, 625 00:29:59,840 --> 00:30:03,509 except for 57 of them, which are turquoise. 626 00:30:03,510 --> 00:30:06,846 Many of those beads are found next to her left wrist. 627 00:30:06,847 --> 00:30:10,641 So it's probably true that she was wearing a bracelet 628 00:30:10,642 --> 00:30:14,520 on her left arm when she was laid to rest. 629 00:30:14,521 --> 00:30:17,148 There are also larger glass beads of varying size, 630 00:30:17,149 --> 00:30:21,360 shape, and color found lying around her neck. 631 00:30:21,361 --> 00:30:23,446 Some are barrel-shaped and turquoise, 632 00:30:23,447 --> 00:30:26,157 others are medium-sized and spherical, 633 00:30:26,158 --> 00:30:29,535 and there are two amber-colored ones that are hexagonal. 634 00:30:29,536 --> 00:30:32,705 They likely formed part of a necklace. 635 00:30:32,706 --> 00:30:34,206 The beads were produced in Europe 636 00:30:34,207 --> 00:30:37,501 and shipped across the Atlantic for use by fur traders 637 00:30:37,502 --> 00:30:41,047 in their dealings with Indigenous groups across Canada. 638 00:30:41,048 --> 00:30:42,882 They were highly valued and traded 639 00:30:42,883 --> 00:30:47,386 among Indigenous populations all across North America. 640 00:30:47,387 --> 00:30:48,888 Along with the glass beads, 641 00:30:48,889 --> 00:30:52,391 31 metal buttons were discovered among the remains, 642 00:30:52,392 --> 00:30:55,895 most of which had a thick, black, felt-like fabric 643 00:30:55,896 --> 00:30:57,897 still attached to them. 644 00:30:57,898 --> 00:30:59,231 They're almost all identical-- 645 00:30:59,232 --> 00:31:01,692 flat, round, and made of brass. 646 00:31:01,693 --> 00:31:03,194 Most of them were lying around her midriff, 647 00:31:03,195 --> 00:31:05,905 while another five are found towards the end of her left arm, 648 00:31:05,906 --> 00:31:07,490 close to the hand. 649 00:31:07,491 --> 00:31:09,241 You can tell by the uniformity of these buttons 650 00:31:09,242 --> 00:31:12,078 that they were made by some industrialized process. 651 00:31:12,079 --> 00:31:13,497 So where did they come from? 652 00:31:15,415 --> 00:31:16,665 Similar buttons have been found 653 00:31:16,666 --> 00:31:19,460 at other trading posts in Alberta. 654 00:31:19,461 --> 00:31:21,754 Archaeologists have found similar styles of buttons 655 00:31:21,755 --> 00:31:24,590 at Fort George on the North Saskatchewan River 656 00:31:24,591 --> 00:31:27,593 and Fort Dunvegan on the Peace River. 657 00:31:27,594 --> 00:31:29,178 Both of these forts 658 00:31:29,179 --> 00:31:33,099 began operating in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. 659 00:31:33,100 --> 00:31:37,437 So these buttons are probably from around that same time. 660 00:31:37,729 --> 00:31:40,981 But considering where they're located next to her hand, 661 00:31:40,982 --> 00:31:45,278 is it fair to say they're part of a cuff? 662 00:31:45,529 --> 00:31:46,904 Traders would often give gifts 663 00:31:46,905 --> 00:31:49,615 that would recognize their social status or position 664 00:31:49,616 --> 00:31:52,619 as leaders within their community. 665 00:31:52,911 --> 00:31:55,287 Exchanging gifts was a very important practice. 666 00:31:55,288 --> 00:31:57,790 It was a sign of an individual's generosity, 667 00:31:57,791 --> 00:31:59,625 but it was also a way of establishing 668 00:31:59,626 --> 00:32:02,086 a working relationship based on trust, 669 00:32:02,087 --> 00:32:04,964 which could be the basis of future trade. 670 00:32:04,965 --> 00:32:06,423 Along with the remains, 671 00:32:06,424 --> 00:32:10,719 archaeologists also found a thimble and brass finger rings. 672 00:32:10,720 --> 00:32:12,054 The thimble in particular can be seen 673 00:32:12,055 --> 00:32:14,640 in old photographs of Blackfoot and Cree peoples. 674 00:32:14,641 --> 00:32:16,600 It was sometimes used for adornment. 675 00:32:19,646 --> 00:32:21,981 The girl's remains were found in an area 676 00:32:21,982 --> 00:32:24,275 that in the 18th and 19th centuries 677 00:32:24,276 --> 00:32:27,153 was largely occupied by the Blackfoot, 678 00:32:27,154 --> 00:32:28,320 a confederacy of three 679 00:32:28,321 --> 00:32:32,158 culturally and linguistically related peoples. 680 00:32:32,159 --> 00:32:33,742 This location is more or less 681 00:32:33,743 --> 00:32:35,327 between two trading posts, 682 00:32:35,328 --> 00:32:39,665 so it could be that she was on her way to or from one of them 683 00:32:39,666 --> 00:32:41,500 when she died. 684 00:32:41,501 --> 00:32:43,502 She was laid to rest with a lot of thoughtfulness 685 00:32:43,503 --> 00:32:47,173 and care, so she must have been traveling with a larger group. 686 00:32:47,174 --> 00:32:51,677 But whether or not they were Blackfoot is hard to say. 687 00:32:51,678 --> 00:32:53,846 Both Beaver and Cree groups occupied areas 688 00:32:53,847 --> 00:32:56,390 to the north and east of the burial site, 689 00:32:56,391 --> 00:32:59,518 so she could have been from one of those communities as well. 690 00:32:59,519 --> 00:33:01,270 It has not been possible to identify 691 00:33:01,271 --> 00:33:04,607 to what specific people the girl belonged to, 692 00:33:04,608 --> 00:33:06,025 but in a sign of respect, 693 00:33:06,026 --> 00:33:08,527 she is referred to as "our grandmother" 694 00:33:08,528 --> 00:33:11,780 by both Treaty 6 and 7 representatives. 695 00:33:19,497 --> 00:33:24,001 13,000 years ago, a combination of human-ignited fires, 696 00:33:24,002 --> 00:33:26,337 climate change and a massive drought 697 00:33:26,338 --> 00:33:29,256 destabilized the Earth's ecosystems 698 00:33:29,257 --> 00:33:32,092 and led to the extinction of animal species 699 00:33:32,093 --> 00:33:33,469 across the planet. 700 00:33:33,470 --> 00:33:36,805 This ecological disaster occurred in the Pleistocene Era, 701 00:33:36,806 --> 00:33:39,850 which spanned from 2.6 million years ago 702 00:33:39,851 --> 00:33:41,894 to roughly 10,000 years ago. 703 00:33:41,895 --> 00:33:45,898 The era was marked by several glacial periods, or Ice Ages, 704 00:33:45,899 --> 00:33:48,359 not to mention the arrival of humans. 705 00:33:50,737 --> 00:33:53,155 The impact of the disaster was devastating. 706 00:33:53,156 --> 00:33:54,657 It disrupted the Earth's ecology, 707 00:33:54,658 --> 00:33:55,991 and the shifts in climate and environment 708 00:33:55,992 --> 00:33:58,577 were too fast for many animals to adapt, 709 00:33:58,578 --> 00:34:00,329 particularly herbivores. 710 00:34:00,330 --> 00:34:02,414 There was extinction on every continent, 711 00:34:02,415 --> 00:34:04,708 but some areas were hit harder than others. 712 00:34:04,709 --> 00:34:07,503 North America lost 70% of its large mammals, 713 00:34:07,504 --> 00:34:09,546 known as megafauna. 714 00:34:09,547 --> 00:34:12,591 Mammoths, mastodons, western camels, 715 00:34:12,592 --> 00:34:15,094 ground sloths, giant armadillos. 716 00:34:15,095 --> 00:34:16,929 I mean, those are just some of the species 717 00:34:16,930 --> 00:34:18,430 that vanished from the Earth. 718 00:34:18,431 --> 00:34:19,765 Not to mention 719 00:34:19,766 --> 00:34:21,934 all the carnivorous animals that preyed on those things 720 00:34:21,935 --> 00:34:24,019 like sabre-toothed cats and dire wolves. 721 00:34:24,020 --> 00:34:29,608 So you've got entire food webs that are just scrambled. 722 00:34:29,609 --> 00:34:32,736 While this event wiped out some wildlife for good, 723 00:34:32,737 --> 00:34:36,782 many animals, such as coyotes, bison and mountain lions, 724 00:34:36,783 --> 00:34:38,534 survived the extinction. 725 00:34:38,535 --> 00:34:41,453 Exactly how and why certain species survived 726 00:34:41,454 --> 00:34:43,956 has been a source of fascination and debate 727 00:34:43,957 --> 00:34:46,667 amongst palaeontologists for decades. 728 00:34:46,668 --> 00:34:49,336 Researchers studying the mass extinction event 729 00:34:49,337 --> 00:34:53,590 notice a geographical trend that may provide some answers. 730 00:34:53,591 --> 00:34:56,302 North and South American species became extinct 731 00:34:56,303 --> 00:34:59,471 at a much higher rate than animals in Europe and Asia. 732 00:34:59,472 --> 00:35:02,808 So, is it possible that geography played a role? 733 00:35:02,809 --> 00:35:05,978 Was the Eurasian ecosystem populated with animals 734 00:35:05,979 --> 00:35:10,649 that were somehow heartier, stronger or faster? 735 00:35:10,650 --> 00:35:13,402 A closer look suggests there's more to it than that. 736 00:35:13,403 --> 00:35:16,155 Specifically, the impact of humans arriving on the scene 737 00:35:16,156 --> 00:35:17,823 and hunting for prey. 738 00:35:17,824 --> 00:35:19,575 Now, many North American mammal species 739 00:35:19,576 --> 00:35:21,660 weren't used to being hunted and colonized. 740 00:35:21,661 --> 00:35:24,330 They were animals that had evolved in isolation, 741 00:35:24,331 --> 00:35:25,998 away from humans. 742 00:35:25,999 --> 00:35:28,667 In Europe and Asia, a larger percentage of mammals 743 00:35:28,668 --> 00:35:30,002 had evolved alongside humans, 744 00:35:30,003 --> 00:35:33,005 and so they were more accustomed to being hunted. 745 00:35:33,006 --> 00:35:36,342 So the extinction rates were lower in that time period, 746 00:35:36,343 --> 00:35:39,011 probably because there were big extinctions, 747 00:35:39,012 --> 00:35:41,388 they were just a lot earlier on. 748 00:35:41,389 --> 00:35:44,600 But human colonization is only one part of the story. 749 00:35:44,601 --> 00:35:47,353 It still doesn't explain the survival of one species 750 00:35:47,354 --> 00:35:50,105 over another in the same location. 751 00:35:50,106 --> 00:35:53,400 For example, why did the coyote of the Southwestern US 752 00:35:53,401 --> 00:35:55,194 survive the disaster, 753 00:35:55,195 --> 00:35:59,365 while his larger neighbor, the sabre-toothed cat, did not? 754 00:35:59,366 --> 00:36:01,158 Hoping to solve the mystery, 755 00:36:01,159 --> 00:36:04,620 the researchers conduct a study of extinct animal fossils 756 00:36:04,621 --> 00:36:06,580 discovered in the La Brea Tar Pits 757 00:36:06,581 --> 00:36:09,041 in Los Angeles, California. 758 00:36:09,042 --> 00:36:11,460 The La Brea Tar Pits are these ancient pools 759 00:36:11,461 --> 00:36:15,547 of thick, sticky asphalt that has oozed to the surface 760 00:36:15,548 --> 00:36:18,384 from large petroleum reservoirs. 761 00:36:18,385 --> 00:36:20,552 When crude oil seeps to the surface 762 00:36:20,553 --> 00:36:22,888 through cracks or fissures in the earth, 763 00:36:22,889 --> 00:36:25,474 the lighter portion of the oil evaporates, 764 00:36:25,475 --> 00:36:29,646 and so what's left behind is a heavy, tar-like substance. 765 00:36:31,731 --> 00:36:32,731 Asphalt from the area 766 00:36:32,732 --> 00:36:33,857 was used for thousands of years 767 00:36:33,858 --> 00:36:35,859 by local Native Americans as a powerful glue 768 00:36:35,860 --> 00:36:39,571 and as waterproof caulking for baskets and canoes. 769 00:36:39,572 --> 00:36:42,241 After the arrival of Westerners, the asphalt was mined 770 00:36:42,242 --> 00:36:44,743 and used for roofing by inhabitants of the nearby town 771 00:36:44,744 --> 00:36:47,037 that would later become LA. 772 00:36:47,038 --> 00:36:49,081 What's remarkable about the Le Brea Tar Pits, 773 00:36:49,082 --> 00:36:52,251 in addition to their consistency, is their longevity. 774 00:36:52,252 --> 00:36:54,461 Those pools have just been sitting there 775 00:36:54,462 --> 00:36:56,422 for thousands of years. 776 00:36:56,423 --> 00:36:58,090 And so in the last couple of centuries, 777 00:36:58,091 --> 00:37:00,426 they have been a very exciting place 778 00:37:00,427 --> 00:37:02,594 for evolutionary biologists. 779 00:37:02,595 --> 00:37:04,430 The tar pits were discovered to contain 780 00:37:04,431 --> 00:37:08,726 animal fossils from as far back as 40,000 years ago 781 00:37:08,727 --> 00:37:10,602 until about 8,000 years ago, 782 00:37:10,603 --> 00:37:13,605 a timeframe that includes the ecological disaster 783 00:37:13,606 --> 00:37:15,941 and resulting extinction. 784 00:37:15,942 --> 00:37:19,611 So is the answer to how and why various species survived 785 00:37:19,612 --> 00:37:23,407 hidden in the sticky asphalt of the Le Brea Tar Pits? 786 00:37:23,408 --> 00:37:25,784 To date, researchers have discovered evidence 787 00:37:25,785 --> 00:37:30,289 of at least 59 species of mammals in the tar pits. 788 00:37:30,290 --> 00:37:34,418 Mammoths, American lions, short-faced bears. 789 00:37:34,419 --> 00:37:37,546 It's basically a massive prehistoric gravesite! 790 00:37:37,547 --> 00:37:41,133 And this is because, going back almost 50,000 years, 791 00:37:41,134 --> 00:37:44,595 the tar pits behaved as a kind death trap, 792 00:37:44,596 --> 00:37:49,308 by trapping an estimated 10,000 animals. 793 00:37:49,309 --> 00:37:50,809 Herbivores would get stuck in the tar 794 00:37:50,810 --> 00:37:53,979 and attract carnivores with their struggle or decay. 795 00:37:53,980 --> 00:37:55,773 Carnivores would then attempt to feed on them 796 00:37:55,774 --> 00:37:57,316 and become stuck themselves, 797 00:37:57,317 --> 00:38:00,319 creating a seemingly endless cycle of death. 798 00:38:00,320 --> 00:38:01,487 The asphalt is sticky 799 00:38:01,488 --> 00:38:03,155 thanks to its unique composition, 800 00:38:03,156 --> 00:38:06,408 which means the fossils are extremely well-preserved. 801 00:38:06,409 --> 00:38:08,952 And we're not talking about a handful of specimens; 802 00:38:08,953 --> 00:38:11,538 over a million fossils have been collected. 803 00:38:11,539 --> 00:38:14,082 It's a lot to process, but the abundance of data 804 00:38:14,083 --> 00:38:15,501 allows scientists to examine 805 00:38:15,502 --> 00:38:18,754 the patterns of extinction in detail. 806 00:38:18,755 --> 00:38:20,672 The researchers focus their attention 807 00:38:20,673 --> 00:38:25,010 on one surviving species in particular: the coyote. 808 00:38:25,011 --> 00:38:27,346 Coyotes were the third most abundant mammal 809 00:38:27,347 --> 00:38:29,014 discovered at the site. 810 00:38:29,015 --> 00:38:30,808 But unlike their larger competitors 811 00:38:30,809 --> 00:38:33,852 like dire wolves or American lions, 812 00:38:33,853 --> 00:38:37,189 common coyotes are still seen in Los Angeles today, 813 00:38:37,190 --> 00:38:40,567 so they are a direct link to their ancestors. 814 00:38:40,568 --> 00:38:43,445 The most obvious difference is size. 815 00:38:43,446 --> 00:38:48,116 Pleistocene coyotes weighed between 35 to 55 pounds 816 00:38:48,117 --> 00:38:51,036 and overlapped in sheer size with wolves. 817 00:38:51,037 --> 00:38:53,872 But today the upper limit of the coyote 818 00:38:53,873 --> 00:38:57,334 is only 25 to 39 pounds. 819 00:38:57,335 --> 00:38:58,794 So it might be possible that the coyote 820 00:38:58,795 --> 00:39:01,046 got smaller and smaller over time 821 00:39:01,047 --> 00:39:02,214 as an adaptive response 822 00:39:02,215 --> 00:39:04,550 to the disappearing prey and food scarcity. 823 00:39:04,551 --> 00:39:08,053 After all, smaller animals need fewer calories to survive. 824 00:39:08,054 --> 00:39:09,388 But that doesn't account for the fact 825 00:39:09,389 --> 00:39:12,558 that other much larger Ice Age animals survived, 826 00:39:12,559 --> 00:39:13,851 and in some cases, thrived. 827 00:39:13,852 --> 00:39:17,521 If you look in Alaska, enormous wild bison and moose 828 00:39:17,522 --> 00:39:19,356 actually increased in numbers. 829 00:39:19,357 --> 00:39:22,901 So there's more at play here than size alone. 830 00:39:22,902 --> 00:39:25,028 The researchers look to the possibility 831 00:39:25,029 --> 00:39:28,240 of competition among Ice Age animals. 832 00:39:28,241 --> 00:39:30,909 If we assume that all carnivorous predators 833 00:39:30,910 --> 00:39:33,370 were competing for the same food source, 834 00:39:33,371 --> 00:39:36,290 maybe coyotes somehow won the competition 835 00:39:36,291 --> 00:39:39,209 over, say, sabre-toothed cats or dire wolves. 836 00:39:40,420 --> 00:39:42,754 They discovered that the cat family predators 837 00:39:42,755 --> 00:39:45,757 mostly lived in forested ecosystems, 838 00:39:45,758 --> 00:39:48,302 likely using the foliage as a cover 839 00:39:48,303 --> 00:39:51,597 to ambush and pounce on the unsuspecting prey. 840 00:39:51,598 --> 00:39:53,891 Whereas the Pleistocene dog predators, 841 00:39:53,892 --> 00:39:55,434 which includes the coyote, 842 00:39:55,435 --> 00:39:57,603 were much more likely to hunt for prey 843 00:39:57,604 --> 00:40:00,439 in open grassland areas. 844 00:40:00,440 --> 00:40:04,401 So in this case, competition was not the deciding factor 845 00:40:04,402 --> 00:40:06,695 for the coyote's survival. 846 00:40:06,696 --> 00:40:09,197 Tooth enamel analysis leads the researchers 847 00:40:09,198 --> 00:40:12,242 to discover another possible explanation-- 848 00:40:12,243 --> 00:40:16,121 the coyote's ability to change its diet over time. 849 00:40:16,122 --> 00:40:17,623 You look at coyotes today, 850 00:40:17,624 --> 00:40:20,292 they're almost perfect Darwinian specimens 851 00:40:20,293 --> 00:40:22,419 with remarkable survival skills. 852 00:40:22,420 --> 00:40:25,255 They can hunt in packs as well as individually; 853 00:40:25,256 --> 00:40:26,632 they're incredibly resilient; 854 00:40:26,633 --> 00:40:28,550 and they've adapted to urban environments 855 00:40:28,551 --> 00:40:32,304 despite human efforts to eradicate them. 856 00:40:32,305 --> 00:40:35,974 So what if the secret to surviving this natural disaster 857 00:40:35,975 --> 00:40:37,643 13,000 years ago 858 00:40:37,644 --> 00:40:39,728 is the very same thing that has allowed them 859 00:40:39,729 --> 00:40:43,649 to thrive today-- adaptable food selection? 860 00:40:43,650 --> 00:40:45,901 The results of the dental analysis reveal 861 00:40:45,902 --> 00:40:48,111 that before the extinction period, 862 00:40:48,112 --> 00:40:52,240 the coyote's diet consisted mostly of megafauna animals, 863 00:40:52,241 --> 00:40:54,534 the large herbivores. 864 00:40:54,535 --> 00:40:56,578 But as these massive animals slowly disappeared, 865 00:40:56,579 --> 00:40:58,288 the coyote looks like it shifted 866 00:40:58,289 --> 00:41:02,668 to eating smaller mammals as well as scavenging on carcasses. 867 00:41:02,669 --> 00:41:05,587 The survival skills and instincts of today's coyote 868 00:41:05,588 --> 00:41:07,882 go back hundreds of thousands of years. 869 00:41:08,174 --> 00:41:11,176 They're highly opportunistic, and it's served them well. 870 00:41:11,177 --> 00:41:14,554 They can eat plants, flesh, scavenge through garbage, 871 00:41:14,555 --> 00:41:16,348 a whole variety of food. 872 00:41:16,349 --> 00:41:19,559 And it's the extinction event that forced them to adapt 873 00:41:19,560 --> 00:41:23,105 even as their initial food source had vanished. 874 00:41:23,106 --> 00:41:24,523 The research conducted 875 00:41:24,524 --> 00:41:27,359 at the La Brea Tar Pits revealed fascinating truths 876 00:41:27,360 --> 00:41:30,362 about one animal's capacity to adapt 877 00:41:30,363 --> 00:41:32,531 and proved that every once in a while 878 00:41:32,532 --> 00:41:36,368 a species' will to live can surpass the odds 879 00:41:36,369 --> 00:41:37,703 and surprise us all.